Metabolic Syndrome: Updates on Pathophysiology and Management in 2021
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MDPI
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) forms a cluster of metabolic dysregulations including insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, central obesity, and hypertension. The pathogenesis of MetS encompasses multiple genetic and acquired entities that fall under the umbrella of insulin resistance and chronic low-grade inflammation. If left untreated, MetS is significantly associated with an increased risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Given that CVDs constitute by far the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, it has become essential to investigate the role played by MetS in this context to reduce the heavy burden of the disease. As such, and while MetS relatively constitutes a novel clinical entity, the extent of research about the disease has been exponentially growing in the past few decades. However, many aspects of this clinical entity are still not completely understood, and many questions remain unanswered to date. In this review, we provide a historical background and highlight the epidemiology of MetS. We also discuss the current and latest knowledge about the histopathology and pathophysiology of the disease. Finally, we summarize the most recent updates about the management and the prevention of this clinical syndrome. © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
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Insulin resistance, Metabolic syndrome, Nutraceuticals, Biomarkers, Chronic disease, Disease management, Disease susceptibility, Humans, Inflammation, Mitochondria, Organ specificity, Prevalence, Public health surveillance, Adiponectin, Angiotensinogen, Apelin, Apolipoprotein a1, Apolipoprotein b, Aspartate aminotransferase, Atorvastatin, Catalase, Chemerin, Cholestin, Coconut oil, Curcumin, Diacylglycerol, Essential oil, Fatty acid synthase, Ghrelin, Glucagon like peptide 1, Glucose transporter 4, Hemoglobin a1c, Hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase inhibitor, Insulin, Intercellular adhesion molecule 1, Interleukin 6, Leptin, Leptin receptor, Linoleic acid, Liraglutide, Liver triacylglycerol lipase, Low density lipoprotein cholesterol, Metformin, Microrna, Mitochondrial transcription factor a, Monocyte chemotactic protein 1, Myeloperoxidase, Nutraceutical, Omega 3 fatty acid, Palm oil, Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma, Probiotic agent, Reactive oxygen metabolite, Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase, Simvastatin, Sitagliptin, Toll like receptor 2, Triacylglycerol, Tumor necrosis factor, Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, Vasculotropin, Biological marker, Abdominal circumference, Adipogenesis, Androgen therapy, Angiogenesis, Antiinflammatory activity, Arterial stiffness, Arterial wall thickness, Atherogenesis, Atherosclerosis, Augmentation index, Bacterial load, Bacteroidetes, Body composition, Body mass, Caloric intake, Cardiometabolic risk, Cardiovascular risk, Cytokine release, Diabetes mellitus, Dna methylation, Endothelial dysfunction, Energy expenditure, Epicardial fat, Epigenetics, Eubacterium, Faecalibacterium, Fat mass, Firmicutes, Follow up, Food intake, Gene expression, Genetic risk, Glucose blood level, Glucose homeostasis, Glucose tolerance, Glucose transport, Glycemic control, Glycemic index, Glycolysis, Histone acetylation, Histopathology, Homeostasis model assessment, Hypertension, Immune response, Immunosuppressive treatment, Innate immunity, Insulin sensitivity, Insulin tolerance test, Insulinemia, Intestine flora, Lactobacillus, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lifestyle modification, Lipid diet, Lipid metabolism, Lipid storage, Lipolysis, Lipophilicity, Macrophage migration, Mediterranean diet, Metabolic regulation, Metabolic syndrome x, Missense mutation, Mitochondrial biogenesis, Mitochondrial respiration, Monascus purpureus, Morbidity, Mortality, Nerve regeneration, Non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, Nonalcoholic fatty liver, Obesity, Oral glucose tolerance test, Oxidative phosphorylation, Oxidative stress, Pathophysiology, Physical activity, Pregnancy diabetes mellitus, Prospective study, Protein expression, Protein synthesis, Psoriasis, Pulse wave, Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index, Review, Risk factor, Splanchnic blood flow, Stomach emptying, Systematic review, Systolic blood pressure, Thrombocyte aggregation, Upregulation, Vascular smooth muscle cell, Verrucomicrobia, Waist circumference, Antibody specificity, Complication, Disease predisposition, Genetics, Health survey, Human, Metabolism, Mitochondrion